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Terms in this set (32)
true experiment
research procedure in which the scientist has complete control over all aspects: the who, what, when, where, and how.
Control over the who of the experiment means that the experimenter can assign subjects to conditions randomly.
Control over the what, when, where, and how of
the experiment means that the experimenter has complete control over the way the experiment is to be conducted
quasi experiment
research procedure which does not meet the requirements of a true experiment
ex post facto design
a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable. ... For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences self-esteem levels in adults.
Factor
the independent variables of an experiment
Level
in an experiment, a particular value of an independent variable
Condition
a group or treatment in an experiment
Treatment
another word for a condition of an experiment
between-subjects (or between-groups) design
a type of experimental design in which the subjects of an experiment are assigned to different conditions, with each subject experiencing only one of the experimental conditions
within-subjects design
a type of experimental design in which all participants are exposed to every treatment or condition. The term "treatment" is used to describe the different levels of the independent variable, the variable that's controlled by the experimenter.
order effect
are those that result from the (ordinal) position in which the
condition appears in an experiment, regardless of the specific condition that is experienced.
Ex. the warm-up or practice effect that often occurs in experiments on learning. Whichever condition is presented first will show poorer performance than later conditions simply because the subjects had not warmed up to the task.
sequence effect
changes in a subject's performance resulting from interactions among the conditions themselves.
block randomization
control procedure in which the order of condi- tions is randomized but with each condition being presented once before any condition is repeated
Counterbalancing
controlling for order and sequence effects by arranging that subjects experience the various conditions in different orders
multiple-conditions design
research design that involves more than two conditions
complete counterbalancing
a process of arranging a series of experimental conditions or treatments in such a way that every possible sequence of conditions is given at least once during the study.
Latin square
control procedure in which each subject experiences each condition in a different order from other subjects
Called the ___ ___ technique, after the ancient puzzle of finding ways to arrange a number of letters in a matrix such that each letter occurs once and only once in each row and column
one-group posttest-only design
research design that measures the behavior of a single group of subjects after they are given a treatment.
Such a ___ ___ ___ ___ design leaves so many threats to validity uncontrolled that it is nearly worthless. Nevertheless, you can certainly recall people who have recommended a product or practice to you on the basis of their own experience.
Nonequivalent control group
a group of subjects that is not randomly selected from the same population as the experimental group. Although the design is an improvement over the one-group posttest-only design, it still has a serious flaw: The control group is not equivalent in every way to those who took the treatment.
One-group pretest- posttest design:
research design that measures the behavior of a single group of subjects both before and after treatment.
Define and distinguish the terms factor, level, and condition when referring to independent variables.
1. The independent variables of an experiment are often called the factors of the experiment. An experiment always has at least one factor, or independent variable; otherwise, it wouldn't be an experiment.
2. A level is a particular value of an independent variable. An independent variable always has at least two levels
3. The term condition is the broadest
of the terms used to discuss independent variables. It refers to a particular way in which subjects are treated.
4. Treatment is just another word for condition.
Describe the two basic elements of good experimental design.
Two particular elements of design provide control over different threats to validity that they are basic to good experimental designs:
(1) the existence of a control group or a control
condition and
(2) the random allocation of subjects to groups.
What is the basic strategy for achieving control in a within subjects design?
By using a subject as his or her own control. This strategy is desirable when the effect of one condition will not carry over to, or contaminate, the other condition or conditions of the experiment to a serious degree.
What are order effects and sequence effects? How are they different?
In within-subjects experiments, because a subject experiences more than one experimental condition, the possibility exists that some variable may influence the data as a result of the repeated testing. The outcomes as a result of these variables are called carryover effects, and there are two types: Order and sequence effects.
Order effects are more general and result from warm-up, learning, fatigue, and the like. Sequence effects are the result of interactions among the conditions themselves.
How do you control for order and sequence effects within subjects?
One controls for order effects by arranging that each condition occur equally often in each ordinal position—first, second, third, and so on. This is known as counterbalancing. Sequence effects are generally controlled for by arranging that each condition follow every other condition equally often.
A useful variation on randomizing to control for order and sequence effects is block randomization. Block randomization means that the order of conditions is randomized, with the restriction that each condition is presented once before any condition is repeated. If there are four conditions and each one is to be represented twice, block randomization might give you the following sequence: BCAD, ADCB. So block randomization is most useful when conditions are presented several times to each subject.
reverse counterbalancing:
method of control in which conditions are presented in order the first time and then in reverse order. This technique is known as ABCCBA sequence, or ABBA for short.
When is reverse counterbalancing ineffective in controlling for order effect?
When relatively few subjects will be tested and you have several conditions that can be presented only a few times, you must begin to exercise ingenuity. A typical example is the instance in which you have three conditions, each presented twice. In this situation, it is common to use reverse counterbalancing to control for order effects.
Note that reverse counterbalancing may do an incomplete job of controlling sequence effects in an ABCDDCBA experiment: The B condition follows A once and C once, but never follows D or itself.
How do you control for order and sequence effects within groups?
If presenting each condition enough times to randomize the order is not possible, or if counterbalancing within-subjects does not seem appropriate, you must leave order and sequence confounded with conditions within subjects. Then you must control for order and sequence between (or across)
subjects, essentially within the group.
Thus you give different participants a different order of sequence rather than giving all subjects the same sequence of conditions.
What does complete counterbalancing control for? What is its greatest disadvantage?
Controls for: It controls for both order and sequence effects.
The disadvantage of this method of counterbalancing is that as the number of conditions increases, the number of orders required increases geometrically.
When is Latin Square technique preferred over complete counterbalancing?
The design is preferred when a researcher wants to control for the order in which each condition occurs with fewer subjects than would be required by complete counterbalancing. Hence, giving up the requirement that each condition follow every other condition an equal number of times. Controlling for order, but not for sequence, of conditions.
The advantage of the Latin square technique over complete counterbalancing is that it permits greater flexibility in choosing the number of subjects to be tested.
Explain the basic strategy for achieving control in a between-subject designs
Subjects cannot be used as their own controls in many situations because of the possibility
of carryover effects. Between-subjects experiments may have two conditions, or more than two.
Basic strategy for achieving control: random assignment of subjects to the groups
When are between-subjects designs preferred over within-subjects designs?
A between-subjects design is used when a significant interaction between conditions would occur if tested within subjects.
Name three designs to avoid in research. give reasons for avoiding them.
1. one-group posttest-only design
2. Nonequivalent control group
3. One-group pretest- posttest design
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Verified questions
psychology
Match the term below with its correct definition. correlation A. method researchers use to answer questions about cause and effect B. researchers select a group of participants end then observe them over a period of time C. part of a target population studied by researchers D. substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person's belief in it E. educated guess or answer to a research question F. factors that can vary or change in an experiment G. measure of how closely two things are related H. standards for proper and responsible behavior I. a measure of distance of every score to the mean J. participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group K. members of a study who do not receive treatment
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question
Putting himself in danger , Nish stood up to the bullies who were beating up Neel in a display of a. assuming responsibility. b. mirror-image perceptions. c. altruism. d. the bystander effect. e. diffusion of responsibility.
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question
Which of the following is an example of flashbulb memory? a. Barry remembers an especially bright sunrise because he was by the ocean and the sunlight reflected off the water. b. Robert remembers that correlation does not prove a cause-effect relationship because his teacher emphasized this fact over and over again. c. Anna remembers when her father returned from an overseas military deployment because the day was very emotional for her. d. Kris has stronger memories of her second grade teacher than she does of her third grade teacher because her second grade teacher has the same name as her neighbor. e. Anton remembers a moment from his last homecoming dance because a strobe light seemed to freeze the scene in his imagination.
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psychology
Do you believe, like Carl Rogers, that each individual takes charge of his or her environment? State your opinion and defend it in a paragraph or two.
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