Which of the following statements about motivated social cognition is the most accurate?

2. According to the Yale Model of Persuasion, the incentive for attitude change is influenced by ______.

1. the source of the persuasive communication
2. the content of the persuasive communication
3. the audience
4. all of these

Answer: D

3. Which of the following statements is true?

1. People who list more favorable cognitive responses to a persuasive communication usually express more agreement with the message.
2. There is correlational, but no experimental evidence supporting the importance of cognitive responses in shaping attitudes.
3. Belief change can occur only by altering both the expectancies associated with the beliefs and the values associated with them.
4. A message’s total effect on a person does not include effects on beliefs not targeted in the message.

Answer: A

4. Which of the following is NOT a postulate of the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

1. People are motivated to hold correct attitudes.
2. People take an objective view of their beliefs when listening to a persuasive argument.
3. The amount and nature of issue-relevant elaboration can vary.
4. Variables can affect attitudes by serving as arguments, cues, or factors that affect the nature and amount of elaboration.

Answer: B

5. Which of the following is NOT a postulate of the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

1. The motivation to process a message objectively does not elicit argument scrutiny.
2. The motivation and ability to process arguments causes increased use of arguments and lower use of cues.
3. Biased processing of a message leads to biased issue-relevant thoughts.
4. Elaborate processing of a message causes new, strong attitudes.

Answer: A

6. The Heuristic-Systematic Model (Chaiken, 1987) proposes that ______.

1. people expend more effort to assess the quality of message arguments when the motivation and ability to process the message are high than when they are low
2. people expend systematic processing when motivation and ability to process the message are high than when they are low
3. people will be more likely to utilize simple persuasive cues, or heuristics, when the motivation and ability to process a message are low
4. all of these

Answer: D

7. Which is NOT a key assumption of the Heuristic-Systematic Model?

1. the ability hypothesis
2. the additivity hypothesis
3. the dual-motivation hypothesis
4. the bias hypothesis

Answer: C

8. Mention a difference between Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and the Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM).

1. The ELM focuses on the motivation to attain correct attitudes, while the HSM predicts that people can be motivated to attain a correct attitude, an attitude that is socially desirable, or an attitude that expresses personal identity and values.
2. The HSM allows for cues such as expertise to act as a heuristic, a biasing factor, or as a partial trigger for more processing, whereas the ELM does not.
3. The ELM permits multiple roles for variables in the persuasion context whereas the HSM does not.
4. The ELM proposes that people can weigh the strengths or weaknesses more strongly when any of several “biasing” factors are present, whereas the HSM does not.

Answer: A

9. Which of the following statements on dual-process models is correct?

1. They predict that the effects of persuasive information depend on the motivation and ability to scrutinize the information.
2. Lower motivation and ability cause cues or heuristics to exert a greater effect on attitudes.
3. High motivation and ability causes message content to exert a greater effect on attitudes.
4. all of these

Answer: D

10. Which of the following statements on dual-process models is correct?

1. Complex information may increase reliance on cues even when personal relevance is high.
2. Cues and message arguments still have different effects even if they are made equally relevant and easy to process.
3. They take meta-cognitions into account.
4. They have taken into account how people think about their thoughts.

Answer: A

11. A teacher tells his students that in order to enhance the value of their diploma, he will be much stricter in marking their exams than they are used to. What is likely to happen, according to the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement.   SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors.   If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience.   While expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

Limitation of Social Cognitive Theory

There are several limitations of SCT, which should be considered when using this theory in public health. Limitations of the model include the following:

• The theory assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes in the person, when this may not always be true.
• The theory is loosely organized, based solely on the dynamic interplay between person, behavior, and environment. It is unclear the extent to which each of these factors into actual behavior and if one is more influential than another.
• The theory heavily focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards biological and hormonal predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations.
• The theory does not focus on emotion or motivation, other than through reference to past experience. There is minimal attention on these factors.
• The theory can be broad-reaching, so can be difficult to operationalize in entirety.

Social Cognitive Theory considers many levels of the social ecological model in addressing behavior change of individuals. SCT has been widely used in health promotion given the emphasis on the individual and the environment, the latter of which has become a major point of focus in recent years for health promotion activities. As with other theories, applicability of all the constructs of SCT to one public health problem may be difficult especially in developing focused public health programs.

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