Before participating in an experiment, individuals should read and sign the ________ form.

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time 

cause-and-effect relationship 

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

observational research study focusing on one or a few people 

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs 

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time 

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion 

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

results are predicted based on a general premise 

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

researcher expectations skew the results of the study 

objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research 

able to be disproven by experimental results 

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population 

hypothesis (plural: hypotheses)

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists 

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group 

conclusions are drawn from observations 

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) 

committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants 

Institutional Review Board (IRB) 

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants 

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event 

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

observation of behavior in its natural setting 

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations 

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate 

subjects of psychological research 

peer-reviewed journal article 

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication 

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation 

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in 

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller 

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability 

subset of individuals selected from the larger population 

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance 

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena 

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure 

Why Is Research Important?

Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world around them works. Theories that stand up to their tests are retained and refined, while those that do not are discarded or modified. In this way, research enables scientists to separate fact from simple opinion. Having good information generated from research aids in making wise decisions both in public policy and in our personal lives.

The clinical or case study involves studying just a few individuals for an extended period of time. While this approach provides an incredible depth of information, the ability to generalize these observations to the larger population is problematic. 

Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior in a natural setting and allows for the collection of valid, true-to-life information from realistic situations. However, naturalistic observation does not allow for much control and often requires quite a bit of time and money to perform.

Researchers strive to ensure that their tools for collecting data are both reliable (consistent and replicable) and valid (accurate). Surveys can be administered in a number of ways and make it possible to collect large amounts of data quickly. However, the depth of information that can be collected through surveys is somewhat limited compared to a clinical or case study.

Archival research involves studying existing data sets to answer research questions.

Longitudinal research has been incredibly helpful to researchers who need to collect data on how people change over time.

Cross-sectional research compares multiple segments of a population at a single time.

A correlation is described with a correlation coefficient, r, which ranges from -1 to 1. The correlation coefficient tells us about the nature (positive or negative) and the strength of the relationship between two or more variables. Correlations do not tell us anything about causation—regardless of how strong the relationship is between variables. In fact, the only way to demonstrate causation is by conducting an experiment. 

How to Conduct an Experiment

The experimental group is exposed to the experimental manipulation, and the control group is not exposed to the experimental manipulation. The researcher then measures the changes that are produced in the dependent variable in each group. Once data is collected from both groups, it is analyzed statistically to determine if there are meaningful differences between the groups. 

Scientific hypotheses are ________ and falsifiable. a. observable b. original c. provable d. testable

________ are defined as observable realities. a. behaviors b. facts c. opinions d. theories

Scientific knowledge is ________. a. intuitive b. empirical c. permanent d. subjective

A major criticism of Freud’s early theories involves the fact that his theories ________. a. were too limited in scope b. were too outrageous c. were too broad d. were not testable

Sigmund Freud developed his theory of human personality by conducting in-depth interviews over an extended period of time with a few clients. This type of research approach is known as a(n): ________. a. archival research b. case study c. naturalistic observation d. survey

________ involves observing behavior in individuals in their natural environments. a. archival research b. case study c. naturalistic observation d. survey

The major limitation of case studies is ________. a. the superficial nature of the information collected in this approach b. the lack of control that the researcher has in this approach c. the inability to generalize the findings from this approach to the larger population d. the absence of inter-rater reliability

The benefit of naturalistic observation studies is ________. a. the honesty of the data that is collected in a realistic setting b. how quick and easy these studies are to perform c. the researcher’s capacity to make sure that data is collected as efficiently as possible d. the ability to determine cause and effect in this particular approach

Using existing records to try to answer a research question is known as ________. a. naturalistic observation b. survey research c. longitudinal research d. archival research

________ involves following a group of research participants for an extended period of time. a. archival research b. longitudinal research c. naturalistic observation d. cross-sectional research

A(n) ________ is a list of questions developed by a researcher that can be administered in paper form. a. archive b. case Study c. naturalistic observation d. survey

Longitudinal research is complicated by high rates of ________. a. deception b. observation c. attrition d. generalization

Height and weight are positively correlated. This means that as height ________ weight ________. a. increases; increases b. decreases; decreases c. increases; decreases d. decreases; increases

Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest relationship between two variables? a. -.90 b. -.50 c. +.80 d. +.25

Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest relationship between two variables? a. -.90 b. -.50 c. +.80 d. +.25

Which statement best illustrates a negative correlation between the number of hours spent watching TV the week before an exam and the grade on that exam? a. Watching too much television leads to poor exam performance. b. Smart students watch less television. c. Viewing television interferes with a student’s ability to prepare for the upcoming exam. d. Students who watch more television perform more poorly on their exams.

The correlation coefficient indicates the weakest relationship when ________. a. it is closest to 0 b. it is closest to -1 c. it is positive d. it is negative

________ means that everyone in the population has the same likelihood of being asked to participate in the study. a. operationalizing b. placebo effect c. random assignment d. random sampling

The ________ is controlled by the experimenter, while the ________ represents the information collected and statistically analyzed by the experimenter. a. dependent variable; independent variable b. independent variable; dependent variable c. placebo effect; experimenter bias d. experiment bias; placebo effect

Researchers must ________ important concepts in their studies so others would have a clear understanding of exactly how those concepts were defined. a. randomly assign b. randomly select c. operationalize d. generalize

Sometimes, researchers will administer a(n) ________ to participants in the control group to control for the effects that participant expectation might have on the experiment. a. dependent variable b. independent variable c. statistical analysis d. placebo

________ is to animal research as ________ is to human research. a. informed consent; deception b. IACUC; IRB c. IRB; IACUC d. deception; debriefing

Researchers might use ________ when providing participants with the full details of the experiment could skew their responses. a. informed consent b. deception c. ethics d. debriefing

A person’s participation in a research project must be ________. a. confidential b. rewarded c. voluntary d. public

Before participating in an experiment, individuals should read and sign the ________ form. a. informed consent b. debriefing c. IRB d. ethics

In this section, the D.A.R.E. program was described as an incredibly popular program in schools across the United States despite the fact that research consistently suggests that this program is largely ineffective. How might one explain this discrepancy? 

The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and cyclical. Briefly describe your understanding of the scientific method with regard to these concepts.

In this section, conjoined twins, Krista and Tatiana, were described as being potential participants in a case study. In what other circumstances would you think that this particular research approach would be especially helpful and why?

Presumably, reality television programs aim to provide a realistic portrayal of the behavior displayed by the characters featured in such programs. This section pointed out why this is not really the case. What changes could be made in the way that these programs are produced that would result in more honest portrayals of realistic behavior? 

Which of the research methods discussed in this section would be best suited to research the effectiveness of the D.A.R.E. program in preventing the use of alcohol and other drugs? Why? 

Aside from biomedical research, what other areas of research could greatly benefit by both longitudinal and archival research?

Earlier in this section, we read about research suggesting that there is a correlation between eating cereal and weight. Cereal companies that present this information in their advertisements could lead someone to believe that eating more cereal causes healthy weight. Why would they make such a claim and what arguments could you make to counter this cause-and-effect claim?

Recently a study was published in the journal, Nutrition and Cancer, which established a negative correlation between coffee consumption and breast cancer. Specifically, it was found that women consuming more than 5 cups of coffee a day were less likely to develop breast cancer than women who never consumed coffee (Lowcock, Cotterchio, Anderson, Boucher, & El-Sohemy, 2013). Imagine you see a newspaper story about this research that says, “Coffee Protects Against Cancer.” Why is this headline misleading and why would a more accurate headline draw less interest?

Sometimes, true random sampling can be very difficult to obtain. Many researchers make use of convenience samples as an alternative. For example, one popular convenience sample would involve students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses. What are the implications of using this sampling technique?

Peer review is an important part of publishing research findings in many scientific disciplines. This process is normally conducted anonymously; in other words, the author of the article being reviewed does not know who is reviewing the article, and the reviewers are unaware of the author’s identity. Why would this be an important part of this process?

Some argue that animal research is inherently flawed in terms of being ethical because unlike human participants, animals do not consent to be involved in research. Do you agree with this perspective? Given that animals do not consent to be involved in research projects, what sorts of extra precautions should be taken to ensure that they receive the most humane treatment possible? 

At the end of the last section, you were asked to design a basic experiment to answer some question of interest. What ethical considerations should be made with the study you proposed to ensure that your experiment would conform to the scientific community’s expectations of ethical research?