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You can read the details below. By accepting, you agree to the updated privacy policy. Thank you! View updated privacy policy We've encountered a problem, please try again. IntroductionThe effective evaluation of research involves assessing the way a study has been designed and conducted, and whether the method used was the most appropriate for answering the aims of the study. In contrast to quantitative studies, which are about breadth, qualitative research focuses on depth. Whereas quantitative research aims to develop objective theories by generating quantifiable numerical data, qualitative research aims to understand meaning. This might be the meanings that people attribute to their work, their behaviours or beliefs, or their attitudes or perceptions. Qualitative research is often based on methods of observation and enquiry; qualitative research “explores the meaning of human experiences and creates the possibilities of change through raised awareness and purposeful action” (Taylor & Francis, 2013). Qualitative research focuses on life experiences; they are more about the “why” and “how” rather than the “how many”, or “how often”. Qualitative study designs might be chosen for any number of reasons. In health, you might be interested in finding out how nurses feel or experience care in the ICU; or you might want to find out how people engaged in heavy substance use found the experience of connecting with a support agency. Qualitative study designs are beneficial for certain types of research questions such as those looking to provide unique insights into specific contexts or social situations. However, they are not as strong when wanting to find direct cause and effect links or where a statistically significant result is required (Taylor et al., 2006). Identifying the best research design to fit the question. Part 2: qualitative designs Free
Statistics from Altmetric.comRequest PermissionsIf you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways. Qualitative research methods have become increasingly important as ways of developing nursing knowledge for evidence-based nursing practice. Qualitative research answers a wide variety of questions related to nursing's concern with human responses to actual or potential health problems. The purpose of qualitative research is to describe, explore, and explain phenomena being studied.1 Qualitative research questions often take the form of what is this? or what is happening here? and are more concerned with the process rather than the outcome.2 This editorial provides an overview of qualitative research, describes 3 common types of qualitative research, and gives examples of their use in nursing. Sampling, data collection, and data analysisSampling refers to the process used to select a portion of the population for study. Qualitative research is generally based on non-probability and purposive sampling rather than probability or random approaches.3 Sampling decisions are made for the explicit purpose of obtaining the richest possible source of information to answer the research questions. Purposive sampling decisions influence not only the selection of participants but also settings, incidents, events, and activities for data collection. Some of the sampling strategies used in qualitative research are maximum variation sampling, stratified purposeful sampling, and snowball sampling.3 Qualitative research usually involves smaller sample sizes than quantitative research.4 Sampling in qualitative research is flexible and often continues until no new themes emerge from the data, a point called data saturation. Many data collection techniques are used in qualitative research, but the most common are interviewing and participant observation.5 Unstructured interviews are used when the researcher knows little about the topic, whereas semi-structured interviews are used when the researcher has an idea of the questions to ask about a topic. Participant observation is used to observe research participants in as natural a setting as possible. The types of participant observation range from complete participation to complete observation.5 To learn more about the topic being studied, qualitative researchers may also use other data sources such as journals, newspapers, letters, books, photographs, and video tapes. Qualitative data analysis, unlike quantitative data analysis, is not concerned with statistical analysis, but with analysis of codes, themes, and patterns in the data.6 Increasingly, qualitative researchers use computer software programs to assist with coding and analysis of data.6 The product of qualitative research varies with the approach used. Qualitative research may produce a rich, deep description of the phenomenon being studied or a theory about the phenomenon. Qualitative research reports often contain direct quotes from participants that provide rich illustrations of the study themes. Qualitative research, unlike its quantitative counterpart, does not lend itself to empirical inference to a population as a whole; rather it allows the researcher to generalise to a theoretical understanding of the phenomenon being examined. Types of qualitative researchThere are many different types of qualitative research, such as ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, life history, and ethnomethodology.6 As in quantitative research, it is important for the nurse researcher to select the qualitative research approach that would best answer the research question. Three of the most commonly used approaches to qualitative research in nursing are phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory.5 The goals and methods associated with each approach will be described briefly in the following sections. Examples of research studies that use each approach and that have previously been abstracted in Evidence-Based Nursing are summarised to illustrate some of the similarities and differences among approaches. Other sources are available that provide a more complete description and comparison of these approaches and their use in nursing.2, 4, 7 PhenomenologyThe aim of a phenomenological approach to qualitative research is to describe accurately the lived experiences of people, and not to generate theories or models of the phenomenon being studied.8 The origins of phenomenology are in philosophy, particularly the works of Husserl, Heidegger, and Merleau-Ponty.8 Because the primary source of data is the life world of the individual being studied, in depth interviews are the most common means of data collection. Furthermore, emerging themes are frequently validated with participants because their meanings of that lived experience are central in phenomenological study. Phenomenology was used to answer the research question what is the lived experience of adults who are integrating a hearing loss into their lives?9 (See Evidence-Based Nursing, 1998 October, p131). The convenience sample consisted of 32 adults with mild to profound degrees of hearing loss. Data were collected through semi-structured, audiotaped interviews with participants. Analysis involved identification of core and major themes in the data, and validation of the findings with selected participants. The core theme of dancing with eloquently captured the participants' perceptions of moving, gracefully or awkwardly, with the changes required by hearing loss, never sure of the next steps. The major themes of dancing with (a) loss and fear, (b) fluctuating feelings, (c) courage amidst change, and (d) an altered life perspective, provide the reader with a rich description of the participants' perceptions of what it was like to live with hearing loss. These findings offer nurses a deep understanding of the phenomenon that they can apply in their interactions with people living with hearing loss. The phenomenological approach was key to uncovering participants' meanings of the complex and dynamic process of integrating hearing loss into their lives. EthnographyThe goal of ethnography is to learn about a culture from the people who actually live in that culture.10 A culture can be defined not only as an ethnic population but also as a society, a community, an organisation, a spatial location, or a social world.11 Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology, which aims to describe the values, beliefs, and practices of cultural groups.10 The process of ethnography is characterised by intensive, ongoing, face to face involvement with participants of the culture being studied and by participating in their settings and social worlds during a period of fieldwork. The essential data collection methods of participant observation and indepth interviewing permit the researcher to learn about the meanings that informants attach to their knowledge, behaviours, and activities.12 The context (social, political, and economic) of the culture assumes an important part of an ethnographic study, unlike a phenomenological study. An ethnographic approach was used to answer the research question what is it like to be a young urban African-American who has at least one AIDS-afflicted family member?13 (See Evidence-Based Nursing, 1998 October, p130.) Stories of 6 young people are described in the article. There was an extensive 4 year period of in depth fieldwork that included telephone and in person interviews and participant observation. The stories powerfully illustrated how the culture in which the youths had to survive was so alienating that they deliberately sought exposure to HIV. The findings provide an important understanding for nurses working with adolescents in either preventive or acute care roles. The ethnographic approach was uniquely suited to bring attention to the important influence of the context of marginalisation, insensitive social policies, and demanding caretaking responsibilities, on the lives of these youths. Grounded theoryThe purpose of a grounded theory approach to qualitative research is to discover social-psychological processes.14 Grounded theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s and is founded philosophically on symbolic interactionism.15 Distinct features of grounded theory include theoretical sampling and the constant comparative method. Theoretical sampling refers to sampling decisions made throughout the entire research process in which participants are selected based on their knowledge of the topic and based on emerging study findings. In data analysis, the researcher constantly compares incidents, categories, and constructs to determine similarities and differences and to develop a theory that accounts for behavioural variation. Both observation and interviewing are commonly used for data collection. Grounded theory was used to answer the research question what is the process of reimaging after an alteration in body appearance or function?16 (See Evidence-Based Nursing, 1998 October, p133.) The theoretical sample consisted of 28 participants who had experienced body image disruptions such as significant weight change; amputation or paralysis of body parts; and scars from burns, surgery, or trauma. Participants were interviewed at 3, 6, 12, and 18 months after the physical alteration. The constant comparative method of concurrent data collection and analysis was used to develop a 3 phase theory of the process of reimaging: (a) body image disruption, (b) wishing for restoration, and (c) reimaging the self. Nurses can use this vital understanding of the phases of reimaging to assist clients through the process by anticipating potential needs or problems, providing information and support, and exploring alternative problem solving strategies. The grounded theory approach was ideally suited to discovering the social-psychological process of reimaging. ConclusionThe examples of nursing research studies using 3 different approaches exemplify the value of qualitative research in answering important nursing questions. The studies also provide rich illustration of the differences and similarities between the disparate approaches that are captured by the term “qualitative research.” The approaches differed in the type of research question asked, the philosophical underpinnings, the methods used, and to some extent, the final product. All studies, however, resulted in important new information about the phenomena studied. This new information facilitates a deeper understanding of participants' experiences by nurse readers and—as long as nurses remain aware of the theoretical rather than empirical basis for generalising from the qualitative findings—has the potential for influencing nursing practice in similar situations. References
Read the full text or download the PDF:Log in using your username and passwordWhich one is the study of how people understand their experiences meaningful?17. PHENOMENOLOGY Something known through sensory experience, it refers to the study of how people understand their experiences meaningful Its primary goal is to make people understand their experiences about death of loved ones, care for handicapped persons, friendliness of people, etc. What qualitative research design understands the essence of the experiences?Phenomenology. A phenomenological approach to qualitative research focuses on the essence of a lived experience, or phenomenon, that can be observed or felt by people who have different viewpoints (Flood, 2010). What kind of qualitative research design refers to an in depth detailed study of an individual or a small group of individual?Case Study Case studies, one of the most common qualitative designs, are used to examine a person, group, community or institution. Researchers often use a bounded theory approach that confines the case study in terms of time or space. What are the 4 types of qualitative research design?Grounded theory, ethnographic, narrative research, historical, case studies, and phenomenology are several types of qualitative research designs. What qualitative research deals with the study of how people find their experiences meaningful?Phenomenology attempts to understand problems, ideas, and situations from the perspective of common understanding and experience rather than differences. Phenomenology is about understanding how human beings experience their world. It gives researchers a powerful tool with which to understand subjective experience. What type of qualitative research refers to the study of human consciousness and individuals experience of some phenomenon?Phenomenology is a form of qualitative research that focuses on the study of an individual's lived experiences within the world. Although it is a powerful approach for inquiry, the nature of this methodology is often intimidating to HPE researchers. Which type of qualitative research refers to a detailed study of a specific subject such as person group place and organization?Ethnography is used when a researcher wants to study a group of people to gain a larger understanding of their lives or specific aspects of their lives. What type of qualitative research is lived experiences of its participants?In phenomenological research, lived experiences are the main object of study, but the goal of such research is not to understand individuals' lived experiences as facts, but to determine the understandable meaning of such experiences. What is a research design that focuses on the commonality and similarity of the lived experience of an individual with in a particular group?Phenomenological Research
Phenomenology is an approach to qualitative research that focuses on the commonality of a lived experience within a particular group.
Which of the following types of qualitative research is designed to focus on the commonality of a lived?Phenomenology is used to identify phenomena and focus on subjective experiences and understanding the structure of those lived experiences.
What is lived experience in phenomenology?In qualitative phenomenological research, lived experience refers to a representation of the experiences and choices of a given person, and the knowledge that they gain from these experiences and choices.
Which of the following types of qualitative research is?There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used. The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.
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What is a research design that focuses on the commonality or similarity of the lived experience of an individual within a particular group?
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