What is the correct ordering of the sections of an empirical journal article?

Sections of an empirical article

Empirical articles are quite structured in their format with several sections that are always included.

Introduction

This section outlines the topic and the question that the researcher aims to answer through the research. It also outlines the reasons for researching this question, explaining how the answers could be useful or significant in some way.

Literature Review

This is a summary of the research which has been published on this topic and the knowledge that has been developed. You would find this by searching the databases of academic journals to find other articles on this topic. All the research in the literature review must be cited in the text of the article and referenced in a list at the end.

A literature review can be arranged in a thematic structure, where different aspects of the topic or different theories related to the topic are addressed one at a time. In some cases, a chronological order, with each piece or research addressed in the order in which it was published, may be more appropriate.

Methodology

The methodology explains in detail what the researcher did to undertake the research. Various aspects of the research have to be outlined:

• The overall structure and operation of the experiment or observational experience.
• The groups studied in the research including the size of each group and any features of the subjects which may be relevant to the topic being researched.
• The variables that were changed between groups and the variables measured as a result of the changes.
• The conditions under which the research was undertaken and any factors or variations in conditions which may have an impact on the results.
• The methods of data analysis used in order to analyse and collate the results.
• Any limitations of the data collected.

Results

The results section describes the findings of the research. When outlining these findings, it is best to give the most central findings first and then move on to the more peripheral results. For example, the overall measure of learning would be given first and then the measures of different types of learning.

Discussion

The discussion section looks at the implications of the findings including the impact this research has on what is already known on the topic and the practical applications of this new knowledge. It also explains the strengths and weaknesses of the research that was undertaken.

Reference List

This is the list of all information taken from other people’s work and cited in the article.

Checklist

Have I:

• Introduced the topic of the research and the significance of research on this topic?
• Outlined the question that the research is seeking to answer?
• Thoroughly researched and described the literature to establish what is already known?
• Described the methods used to undertake the research including details of:
  • the overall structure of the research
  • the subject populations
  • the variables being manipulated and measured
  • the conditions under which the research was conducted
  • the methods of data analysis used?
• Outlined the results of the research?
• Discussed the implications of those results?
• Explained the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
• Cited and referenced all work by other people?
• Checked punctuation and spelling?

The function of this section is to summarize general trends in the data without comment, bias, or interpretation. The results of statistical tests applied to your data are reported in this section although conclusions about your original hypotheses are saved for the Discussion section.

Tables and figures should be used when they are a more efficient way to convey information than verbal description. They must be independent units, accompanied by explanatory captions that allow them to be understood by someone who has not read the text. Do not repeat in the text the information in tables and figures, but do cite them, with a summary statement when that is appropriate.  Example:

Incorrect: The results are given in Figure 1.

Correct: Temperature was directly proportional to metabolic rate (Fig. 1).

Please note that the entire word "Figure" is almost never written in an article.  It is nearly always abbreviated as "Fig." and capitalized.  Tables are cited in the same way, although Table is not abbreviated.

Whenever possible, use a figure instead of a table. Relationships between numbers are more readily grasped when they are presented graphically rather than as columns in a table.

Data may be presented in figures and tables, but this may not substitute for a verbal summary of the findings. The text should be understandable by someone who has not seen your figures and tables.

1. All results should be presented, including those that do not support the hypothesis.

2. Statements made in the text must be supported by the results contained in figures and tables.

3. The results of statistical tests can be presented in parentheses following a verbal description.

Example: Fruit size was significantly greater in trees growing alone (t = 3.65, df = 2, p < 0.05).

Simple results of statistical tests may be reported in the text as shown in the preceding example.  The results of multiple tests may be reported in a table if that increases clarity. (See Section 11 of the Statistics Manual for more details about reporting the results of statistical tests.)  It is not necessary to provide a citation for a simple t-test of means, paired t-test, or linear regression.  If you use other tests, you should cite the text or reference you followed to do the test.  In your materials and methods section, you should report how you did the test (e.g. using the statistical analysis package of Excel). 

It is NEVER appropriate to simply paste the results from statistical software into the results section of your paper.  The output generally reports more information than is required and it is not in an appropriate format for a paper.

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