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 ReviewAdolescent identity development in contextUnder a Creative Commons license Open access Highlights• Identity development during adolescence is characterized by both systematic maturation and substantial stability. •Life events and transitions and accumulating daily experiences might be the underlying mechanisms in identity development. •A cohesive and certain identity is closely related to better functioning in multiple domains. •Constructive narrative processes in high quality family relationships and friendships facilitate identity development. AbstractOne of the key developmental tasks in adolescence is to develop a coherent identity. Studies have increasingly begun to go beyond the study of mean level identity change and examine the underlying mechanisms of identity development at the intraindividual, microlevel, that is, at the level where development is taking place: within the person, in here and now experiences and relationships. Identity development during adolescence is characterized by both systematic maturation and substantial stability. Life events and transitions, as well as accumulating real-time experiences, might play a role in identity development. Optimal development of identity is embedded in high-quality family relationships and friendships in which constructive narrative processes take place. KeywordsAdolescence Identity Within-person processes Microprocesses. Cited by (0)© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. Refers to all of the characteristics of a person; a sense of self is carried throughout our entire lives; begins to really increase during adolescence The individual's cognitive representation of the self; the substance and content of self-conceptions; is basically how we see ourselves; based on various roles we play and membership to different categories or groups; is very complex and hard to describe in 1 word What are the dimensions of self-understanding in adolescents? Abstraction and idealism; differentiation; the fluctuating self; contradictions within the self; self-consciousness, protection, and awareness Adolescents begin to think about how others think of them and engage in social comparison; an individual's beliefs about how they're viewed by others; have this to try to figure out how others are evaluating them; most adolescents don't admit to using this because they think it will make them less popular and think it's a socially undesirable behavior; this practice can be confusing because there are so many social comparisons that they can make The global evaluative dimension of the self; reflects perceptions but doesn't always match reality Domain-specific evaluations of the self; means acknowledging different levels of competence in different domains; this hasn't been paid attention to in the research until recently Developed a measure for adolescents called the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents A self-centered approach toward others; adolescents with this are typically unaware of their actual self and of how people perceive them; tend to be self-congratulatory; view their own needs/desires as more important than anyone else's; find it difficult to show any empathy towards anyone; causes negative consequences such as poor interpersonal relationships, and negative implications for society in extreme cases Are today's adolescents/emerging adults more narcissistic? Some research supports that they are more narcissistic and self-centered now than in the past; this is connected to adolescents growing up with empty praise; current generations of adolescents have difficulty handling criticism and actual competition
Fluctuates across the lifespan and often decreases during transitions; in general we know that this decreases in adolescents but increases again in the 20s, levels off in the 30s, and rises again in the 40s to mid-60s; studies often find that adolescent girls have lower self-esteem than adolescent boys What domain is most related to self-esteem? Physical appearance; this is true across cultures, not just in the U.S. and lasts throughout adulthood Consequences of low self-esteem The emotional discomfort of low self-esteem is temporary for most adolescents; however this can sometimes develop into depression, suicidal ideation, anorexia, and delinquency; however, low self-esteem isn't deterministic of any of these problems because other factors play a role in their development What are some ways you can improve self-esteem in an adolescent? Identify the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence that are important to their self; provide emotional support and social approval; foster achievement; help adolescents cope Self-reflection and identity exploration Are hallmarks of adolescent development Adolescents describe themselves more in these ways when compared to children because they are now able to do so (according to Piaget's theories); they can use their new cognitive abilities to extend their understanding of their selves Over time, adolescents are more likely to note contextual and situation variations in their self and who they are; adolescents begin to recognize that they present different selves based on different situations Adolescents recognize that their view of their self is fluctuating, which is still experienced until mid-adulthood; their view of their selves are marked by instability and changes over time; 1 of the most commonly sighted instances of fluctuation is mood/disposition, which may also depend on situations and contexts Contradictions within the self Adolescents experience this along with the fluctuations with the self; adolescents begin to realize that they have different selves that are contradictory to each other which is also due to differentiation The self than an adolescent currently is The self that the adolescent wants to be There is a debate in the research as to whether or not this is healthy or unhealthy; can be unhealthy if there is a large discrepancy between the 2 because there may be a sense of failure, self-criticism, depression, and low self-esteem associated with it; however this may actually be healthy because of the aspect of the possible self Includes who the adolescent might become as well as who they would like to become; can also include people they don't want to become; can create a balance between perspective of who they are and motivation to become who they want to be; this gears them towards specific behaviors that will cause them to be more likely to achieve their ideal self One that an adolescent presents to others in certain situations such as impressing others or to try out new roles Most adolescents can distinguish between these; research suggests that they are more likely to put up a false self in order to impress people, specifically close friends and potential dating partners Increases in adolescence and applies to anything that can be observed in public; can be speech, appearance, etc. Adolescents engage in this in an effort to try to protect themselves; they don't really pay attention to their own negative characteristics and focus on their positive ones instead Achieve this more as adolescents progress; this is how an individual is aware of their psychological makeup (which includes their strengths and weaknesses) and helps because it lets them engage in more helpful and effective problem solving behaviors by being able to look back on previous behaviors/events and analyze them Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents Assesses 8 domains: scholastic, athletic, social acceptance, physical appearance, conduct, close relationships, romantic appeal, and job competence; these domains map on to various tasks that adolescents have to engage in, and whether they might succeed or struggle in them; is a self-report measure so adolescents may lie; this is causing researchers to push for more observational research or having another individual rate the adolescent as well Can actually be accurate or can be indicative of arrogance/narcissism Can actually be accurate or indicative of distorted feelings Why do adolescent girls typically have lower self-esteem than adolescent boys? This may be because girls take more of an interest in social relationships which isn't really rewarded in Western society; athletic success is rewarded however and is something that boys are more likely to achieve; puberty is another big reason because girls have more negative body images during this time The link between family and self-esteem Cohesive ones are associated with higher levels of self-esteem Ones that spend a lot of time together and have high quality communication The link between parenting and self-esteem When they're actively involved and interested in an adolescent's problems, it's associated with higher self-esteem The link between peers and self-esteem The approval of them is very important for adolescents, and if they approve then they're more likely to have higher self-esteem; some studies suggest that approval from a general group of peers is more important than approval from your close friends The link between school and self-esteem School transitions are associated with decreases in self-esteem Erikson's ideas about identity At some point, everyone asks themselves who are they and what are they going to do with their life; these questions are universal for adolescents; Erikson was the 1st to realize the importance of identity formation in development; by late adolescence, vocational roles often become the concentration of identity which is more true in technologically advanced societies; identity has many components such as morals, values, priorities, interests, etc. Eriksons's identity vs. identity confusion stage Occurs from 10-20 years; during this stage, adolescents are tasked with deciding who they are; adolescents are confronted with new roles and use them to explore their identity; psychosocial moratorium is experienced here The gap between childhood security and adult autonomy; adolescents try out different roles and personalities Leaving the identity vs. identity confusion stage successfuly Adolescent forms a new sense of self and identity; adolescents who can cope with conflicting roles and identities will successfully pass this stage Leaving the identity vs. identity confusion stage unsuccessfully Adolescents experience identity confusion; they withdraw from peers or immerse themselves so much in their peer relationships that they lose their identity Analyzed Erikson's theory on identity development and believed that it can have 4 conclusions based on crisis and commitment: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement The adolescent hasn't experienced commitment and hasn't considered any alternatives; haven't experienced crisis either; adolescent hasn't thought about it and generally doesn't care about figuring out who they are When adolescents have made a commitment but they haven't experienced any crisis; ex: an adolescent who has parents who dictate who they become, or an adolescent who has made up their mind and doesn't think about any alternatives When an adolescent is in crisis but hasn't committed; the adolescent who constantly decides on new identities and doesn't settle on one When the adolescent has undergone crisis but has resulted in some form of a commitment A period of identity development where adolescents are just choosing among a lot of different possibilities When an adolescent has a personal investment in their developed identity Developmental changes in identity The key changes are more likely to take place later on in adolescence or even in emerging adulthood; college students experience more achievement in career options and less in political and spiritual views; the 1st identity an individual commits to isn't always their final 1; people can cycle through Marcia's stages; people are more likely to cycle through them when they're experiencing difficulties in their life Family influences on identity Family environments that promote both individuality ad connectedness are better overall for identity development The influence of parenting styles on identity In general, parents who are more democratic foster more identity achievement; parents who are more controlling are more likely to foster foreclosure A family atmosphere that presents this self-assertion and separateness The ability to have a point of view Being able to consider how someone is unique A family atmosphere that presents this involves mutuality and permeability Being able to be sensitive to and respect other's views Being able to be open to opposing views
Cultural and ethnic influences on identity Erikson believed that ethnic identity is important, specifically maintaining a cultural identity in the face of the dominant/majority culture; research shows that ethnic minorities are more likely to have a cultural dimension as a part of their identity because the majority culture tends to take their identity for granted; ex: white Americans don't spend a lot of time thinking about other white Americans An enduring aspect of the self that includes membership to an ethnic group; potentially includes attitudes, beliefs, and feelings related to that group; adolescents in ethnic minority groups have to consider this added dimension as their identity as well as their identity with the majority culture Adolescents identity in some way with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture Erikson believed that males are oriented towards careers and women are oriented towards marriage and childbearing; however research from different time periods shows conflicting evidence Gender research from the 60s-70s Erikson's beliefs come from the traditional division of labor during this time, and all research from this time supported his views Gender research over the last several decades Women have become more oriented towards careers over marriage and childbearing; gender differences in identity have begun to disappear The feelings or affect of a person; more often than not characterized by behaviors; can be general or specific; also vary in intensity Emotions in early adolescence Experience emotional highs and lows more frequently; moodiness is normal during this time; the intensity of their emotions is very variable; emotions can be out of proportion to what is really happening; most grow out of this but continuous intense negative emotions can become a problem Hormones, experience, and emotions Significant hormonal changes occur during puberty which is associated with emotional fluctuations in early adolescence and even an increase in negative emotions; negative emotions are also associated with many environmental changes that occur during puberty (stress, eating patterns, sleeping patterns, etc.) Adolescents develop this over time and are then more likely to be aware of their emotional cycles; becoming self-aware of their emotions and learn how to regulate them; become more skilled at presenting and communicating their emotions to others; begin to learn how to cover up their emotions as well What emotional competencies should adolescents develop? Awareness that emotional expression plays a role in relationships; adaptive coping; inner emotional states don't have to correspond to outer expressions; being aware of one's emotional states without being overwhelmed by them; being able to discern others' emotions The enduring personal characteristics of individuals and is viewed as encompassing both the self and identity Big 5 factors of personality (OCEAN) Everyone has different levels of all 5 factors; personality isn't very stable in adolescence when measured by this; researchers caution that you should consider contextual factors when assessing personality traits; openness to experiences, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism How tolerant a person is and how much they like variety; those high on this are more likely to engage in identity exploration and tend to show more imagination How careful, considerate, and disciplined a person is; those high on this have really high quality relationships and are also generally high achievers How sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate a person is; those high on this have a more positive sense of well-being and are more likely to engage socially How trusting and helpful a person is; those high on this are more generous and view others more positively How emotionally stable a person is; calm vs. anxious; secure vs. insecure; those high on this are more likely to experience negative emotions, anxiety, and insecurity An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding; primarily studied in childhood Chess and Thomas (1977, 1991) Found that there are 3 basic types of temperament: easy child, difficult child, and slow-to-warm-up child; the first temperaments that were ever described A child that has a positive mood and adapts very easily to new situations A child that has a negative mood, fuses often, and reacts negatively to many different situations Generally have a low activity level and are somewhat negative, but gradually become more positive Rothbart and Bates (1998) Revised Chess and Thomas' conceptualization of temperament; suggested instead that we think about these aspects: positive affect and approach, negative affectivity, and effortful control/self-regulation
Positive affect and approach Synonymous with extraversion Opposite of positive affect and approach; a child that's easily distressed; more closely related to introversion and neuroticism Effortful control/self-regulation Refers to someone's ability to control their emotions; should increase in adolescence; being low on this means that an individual is easily agitated, highly emotional, and reactive Temperament across the lifespan Temperament in childhood is linked to adjustment in adolescence and adulthood; those with easier temperaments had a better family environment and more positive relationships with their parents when compared to those with more difficult temperaments; measured by the goodness of fit Refers to the match between the temperament of the child and the environment; can be either positive adjustment or negative adjustment Is associated with more ability to have effortful control and agreeableness; these adolescents are less likely to have stressful environments Is associated with negative emotionality and a more stressful environment What is the least mature identity status?The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. Identity diffusion is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options, nor made a commitment to an identity.
Which of the following is considered a primary developmental task of adolescence?The most important task of adolescence is the search for identity. (This is often a lifelong voyage, launched in adolescence.) Along with the search for identity comes the struggle for independence.
What happens if youth from different ethnic backgrounds are unable to effectively navigate among their different worlds?What happens if youth from different ethnic backgrounds are unable to effectively navigate among their different worlds? They can experience alienation from family, peers, and school.
Which of the following terms did Erik Erikson use for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy?The search for an identity during adolescence is aided by a [psychosocial moratorium], which is Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy.
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Which of the following parenting styles has been associated with fostering identity achievement?
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